A Brief History of Tall Structures: The Evolution of Modern Skyscrapers

From the ancient Tower of Babel to the iconic Burj Khalifa, humanity's desire to reach greater heights has always been a powerful driving force. Over the centuries, we have raised towering structures to celebrate our culture, showcase our cities, or simply exhibit our engineering prowess.

Historically, tall buildings were associated with great rulers, religious institutions, and mighty empires. For instance, the Great Pyramids of Giza, constructed to serve as the final resting place of Pharaoh Khufu, once soared to over 145 meters in height, reigning as the world's tallest man-made structure for nearly 4,000 years. It wasn't until the 14th century that the 160-meter-tall Lincoln Cathedral surpassed it.

Other notable structures, like Tibet's Potala Palace (the traditional residence of the Dalai Lama) and the monasteries of Athos, were perched atop mountains and rocky cliffs, reaching closer to the heavens in a spiritual pursuit.

However, these grand historical endeavors pale in comparison to the skyscrapers that emerged in the 20th and 21st centuries. The Shard in London, reaching a height of 310 meters, may seem tall, but it appears minuscule when compared to the Burj Khalifa, standing at over 828 meters. Both, though, will soon be overshadowed by the Kingdom Tower in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Originally conceived by architect Adrian Smith to reach a staggering 1,600 meters, the tower is now expected to reach one kilometer when completed in 2020.

So, how did we achieve this monumental leap skyward?

Ingredients for Success

Our journey to the skies can be traced back to the 1880s when the first generation of skyscrapers emerged in cities like Chicago and New York. The thriving insurance businesses of the mid-19th century were among the earliest to harness technological advancements that enabled the construction of tall buildings.

The Great Fire of 1871 prompted the construction of the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, completed in 1884 by architect William Le Baron Jenney. This building, soaring 12 stories high, is widely acknowledged as the first tall structure of the industrial era.

Architects Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler coined the term "tall office building" in 1896, drawing inspiration from the architectural traditions of Italy's Renaissance palazzi. Their definition specified that the first two stories were designated for entrances and retail spaces, with a service basement below. Above this, stories were repeated, culminating in a cornice or attic story to crown the building. Vertical ducts integrated the building with essential services like power, heat, and circulation. This fundamental concept remains relevant in modern architecture.

The American technological revolution of 1880 to 1890 ushered in a period of creativity that produced numerous innovations facilitating taller building designs. Bessemer steel, fashioned into I-sections in new rolling mills, allowed for more flexible and taller framework designs than the previous cast iron structures. Newly patented sprinkler systems provided fire protection, enabling buildings to surpass the previous height restrictions of 23 meters. Additionally, the patenting of alternating current (AC) electricity paved the way for electrically powered elevators, making it possible to ascend ten or more stories.

Early tall buildings were primarily used for office spaces. The invention of the typewriter, telephone, and the U.S. universal postal system during this period transformed office work, facilitating the concentration of administration in high-rise buildings within city business districts.

Shifts in urban life further encouraged the transition to taller, higher-density structures. Street trams, subways, and elevated rail links allowed hundreds of workers to converge on a single urban location, long before the advent of automobiles in the United States reshaped urban planning. Prior to the proliferation of cars, terraced houses were the dominant housing style in crowded cities like Paris, London, and Manhattan, evolving to nine stories in densely populated areas like Hong Kong.

Early office towers occupied entire city blocks, featuring large light and air-wells in the form of squared U, O, or H shapes. These designs allowed natural light and ventilation but didn't provide public spaces. In 1893, Chicago imposed a height limit of 40 meters, while New York raced ahead with large, towering structures. Many of these buildings, including the Singer, Woolworth, MetLife, and Chrysler buildings, gradually tapered off with "campanile" towers in fierce competition to become the world's tallest.

Second-Generation Giants

In 1915, following the completion of the 40-story Equitable building on Broadway, New York faced growing concern about the darkening streets. To address this issue, the city introduced "zoning laws" that required new buildings to step back in a ziggurat-like fashion as they rose. This design approach aimed to bring natural light to street level. As a result, while the base of the building continued to fill the city block, the upper floors were set back at regular intervals. This innovation relocated the building's service core to the center, eliminating the traditional light well and necessitating mechanical ventilation and artificial lighting for human habitation. This marked a significant shift in the design of tall buildings, introducing the second generation of skyscrapers.

As architectural historian Carol Willis has aptly put it, "form follows finance." During the early 20th century, developers of high-rise office buildings focused on maximizing usable floor space within a city lot, often consulting architects after determining the best use of the space. The expansive walls of these structures, with conventional windows, provided an ideal canvas for geometric decoration. The ziggurat style became emblematic of the Art Deco movement.

The mania for profit-driven tall developments reached its zenith in the late 1920s with the construction of the Chrysler and Empire State buildings in 1931. However, oversupply of office buildings, the economic depression of the 1930s, and World War II led to the decline of the Art Deco era. The development of skyscrapers came to a halt until the 1950s when the post-war era ushered in a third generation marked by the International Style. This generation introduced buildings characterized by darkened glass, steel-framed boxes, air conditioning, and plaza-style fronts that remain prominent in cities worldwide.